Introduction to Humans in Engineered Systems [精裝] (工程系統中的人為因素導論)

內容簡介

Engineering accomplishments can be as spectacular as a moon landing or as mundane as an uneventful drive to the local grocery store. Their failures can be as devastating as a plane crash or a massive oil spill. Over the past decade, psychologists and engineers have made great strides in understanding how humans interact with complex engineered systems—human engineering.

Introduction to Humans in Engineered Systems provides historical context for the discipline and an overview of some of the real-world settings in which human engineering has been successfully applied, including aviation, medicine, computer science, and ground transportation. It presents findings on the nature and variety of human-engineering environments, human capabilities and limitations, and how these factors influence system performance. Important features include:

* Contents organized around the interaction of the human operator with the larger environment to guide the analysis of real-world situations
* A web-based archive of interactive demonstrations, exercises, and links to additional readings and tools applicable to a range of application domains
* Web content customizable for focus on particular areas of study or research
 

目錄
Preface
Historical Perspective
References
Natural and Engineered Systems
Purposeful Design
User-Centered Design
Design against Failure
Summary
References
Historical Roots
Engineering for Physical Limitations
Size
Strength
Speed and Efficiency
Engineering for Human Cognition
Writing
Number Systems
Point-and-Click Interfaces
The Modern Era
Aviation
The Digital Computer
A Fractured Field
Human Factors/Ergonomics
Human-Computer Interaction
Human-Systems Integration
Summary
References
The Current Practice
Aerospace
The Human-System Specialist in Aerospace
Medicine
The Human-System Specialist in Medicine
Automotive Industry
The Human-System Specialist in the Automotive Industry
Computer Industry
The Human-System Specialist in Human-Computer Interfaces
Summary
References
The Environment
References
The Varied Nature of Environments
Statics vs. Dynamic Domains
Sources of Difficulty in Static Environments
Modes
Comprehension
Sources of Difficulty in Dynamic Environments
Lag
Plant Dynamics
Control Order
Perturbation and Noise
Internal vs. External Pacing
Error Tolerance
Summary
References
The Social Context
Methodological Consequences of Group Size
Length/Variability of Response Times
Methods of Study and Analysis
Communication and Coordination Consequences of Group Size
Summary
References
Analysis Techniques
Modeling Static Environments: Finite State Representations
Modeling Dynamic Environments
Control Theory
Signal Detection Theory
Task Analysis
Measuring Complexity Using Information Theory
Modeling Throughput Using Queuing Theory
Summary
References
The Human Element
References
Determinants of Human Behavior
The Human Factor
Structure and Content
Levels of Analysis
Summary
References
The Structure of Human Information Processing
Processing Stages
Cognition and Action
Cognition and Goal-Directed Behavior
Response Selection
The Hick-Hyman Law
Compatibility
The Nature of Capacity Limitations
Summary
References
Acquiring Information
Sensory Processing
Vision
Illumination
Reflectance of the Surface
Reflectance of Surrounding Surfaces
Anatomy of the Eye
Visual Acuity
Acuity and Retinal Eccentricity
Adaptation
Saccadic Eye Movements
Temporal Vision
Masking and Crowding
The What and Where of Vision
Summary
Color Vision
CIE Color Space
The Uses of Color
Audition
The Human Auditory System
Auditory Perception
Pitch, Masking, and Critical Banks
Auditory Localization
Auditory-Visual Cross-Modal Interactions
Sensory Processing Summary
Attention
Selective Attention
The Cocktail Party Phenomenon and Echoic Memory
Iconic Memory in Vision
Resource and Data Limits
The Capacity of Attention
The Processing of Unattended Items
Controlling Attention
Visual Search
Visual Monitoring
Information Foraging Theory
Summary
References
Central Processing Limitations on Multitasking
Bottleneck Theories
Central Bottleneck Theory
The Psychological Refractory Period Paradigm
Central Bottleneck Theory and Driving
Central Bottleneck Theory and Human-Computer Interaction
Fitts' Law
Project Ernestine
Capacity Theories
Complexity in Resource Allocation
Allocation of Limited-Capacity Resources
Multiple Resources Theory
Using Multiple Resource Theory
Applications of Single-Channel and Multiple Resource Theories
Timesharing
Task-Switching Costs
Cognitive Operations in Task Switching
Timesharing Strategies and the Control of Processing
Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off
Optimal Strategies
Summary
References
Memory
Types of Memories
Short-Term Memory
Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
Episodic versus Semantic Memory
Retaining and Forgetting Information
Interference
Forgetting to Remember to Remember: Prospective Memory
Retrieving Information
Short-Term Memory Retrieval
Long-Term Memory Retrieval
Summary
References
Decision Making
Anatomy of a Decision
Normative Approaches to Decision Making
Rational Decisions
Bayes Theorem
Utility and Expected Value
Nonoptimality of Human Decisions
Failure to Consider Base Rate Information
Judging Numerical Quantities
Failure to Appreciate Statistical Properties
Cognitive Approaches to Decision Making
Confirmation Bias
Framing Effects
Overconfidence
Heuristics in Human Decisions
Availability
Representativeness
Anchoring
The Use of Heuristics
Other Influences on Decision Making
Process Models of Human Decision Making
Naturalistic Decision Making
Relationship between Decision-Making Models and Systems Engineering
Summary
References
Human-System Integration
References
A Case Study in Human-System Performance: The Exxon Valdez
An Account of the Grounding of the Tankship Exxon Valdez
The Nature of the Error
Mode Errors
Control Dynamics and Detection Times
Time Estimation
Decision Biases
Multitasking
Summary
References
Human Error
Human Error and System Error
The Nature of Human Error
Theories of Human Error
Error Types
Error Forms
Situation Awareness
Situation Awareness in Individuals
Situation Awareness of Teams
Cognitive Processing in Establishing Situation Awareness
Measuring Situation Awareness
Inferring Situation Awareness from Eye Fixation Patterns
Summary of Situation Awareness
Summary
References
Contextual Factors Affecting Human-System Performance
Workload
Defining and Measuring Workload
Performance-Based Metrics
Cognitive Task Analysis
Physiological Indices of Workload
Subjective Ratings of Workload
Workload Summary
Interruption
Operator State
Fatigue
Sleep Deprivation and Circadian Rhythms
Summary
References
The Role of Automation in Human-System Performance
Using Automated Devices
Levels of Automation
A Taxonomy of Automation Levels
Automation as a Decision Support Aid
Automation and System Safety
Summary
References
Supporting Human-System Performance
Alarms and Alerts
Sensory Characteristics of Good Alerts and Alarms
Design Considerations in Alerts and Alarms
Human Factors Issues with Alerts and Alarms
Information Displays
Transform Information to Take Advantage of Human Perceptual Systems
Match Perceptual Cues to the Nature of the Judgment
Choose Perceptual Depictions Compatible with Internal Representations
Provide Feedback
Use Presentation Techniques That Minimize Demand for Focal Visual Attention
Use Perceptual Distinctions That Match Visual and Auditory Capabilities
Apply the Proximity Compatibility Principle
Create Barriers
Summary
References
Index